Guido Tabellini, “Lessons for the future: Ideas and rules for the world in the aftermath of the storm, Part I”(July 16, 2009)
そろそろ世界金融危機の経験から試みにいくつか結論を引き出してみるべき時だろう。本論説では―本論説は2部構成のうちの最初のパートを成すものである―、危機の原因と性質とを評価する。危機の原因は金融市場における失敗に求められるが、政策当局者も危機に対する大きな責めを負っている。規制面での失敗が民間部門の誤りを増幅し、危機への首尾一貫しない政策対応が問題をさらに悪化させたのであった。
世界経済を席巻した金融危機が勃発してからほぼ2年が経過した現在、そろそろこの世界金融危機についていくつか結論を引き出すとともに、この危機が将来に対して示唆する主要な教訓の輪郭を描き出してみる時期が来ているのかもしれない。実際のところ、今般の世界金融危機は市場経済のターニングポイント(転換点)、つまりは政府と市場との分業関係に関する根本的な変化を要請するシステマティックな危機と言えるのであろうか? それとも、金融規制を巡る重要な技術的問題のいくつかが解決されれば、すべては原状に復する(back to normal)類のものなのであろうか?
市場の失敗(Market failure)
まずは「市場の失敗」という観点から問題に切り込んでいくことにしよう。疑いもないことであるが、この危機は世界で最も洗練された市場の一つ―現代の金融市場―における深刻な失敗を浮き彫りにした。金融市場が果たす重要な役割の一つはリスクを配分することにあるが、危機に至る過程において金融市場はこの役割の面で大きな失敗を犯してきた。リスクは過小評価され、多くの金融仲介機関は過剰なリスクを負担することになったのである。しかしながら、金融市場のリスク配分機能に失敗が生じた理由やこの失敗が経済政策に対して投げかけるインプリケーションはそれほど明白なわけではない。
(金融市場においてこのような失敗が生じた理由に対する;訳者挿入)一つのあり得る説明は、リスク評価に対する人間の能力の限界(poor judgement)である。金融革新のペースがあまりにも急激であったために、経験を積んでいる実務家であっても、新たに組成された金融商品が抱えるリスクの程度を必ずしもしっかりと把握できなかった、というわけである。新たな金融商品が有するシステマティックなインプリケーションが明確に理解されなかった結果として、多くの投資家はグローバルな金融市場のリスク吸収力を過大評価することになり、また、今般の危機でその重要性が明らかになったシステミックリスクと流動性リスクとを見過ごすことになったのであった。また、リスク評価における誤りは、稀にしか起きない(rare or infrequent)出来事が生じる確率を正確に評価することに伴う困難によっても部分的に説明できるかもしれない。金融市場における失敗がこういった理由から生じたとすれば、今後に対してそこまで心配する必要はないだろう。失敗の原因がリスク評価に対する能力の限界にあるとすれば、今回の危機は(反省すべき経験として;訳者挿入)記憶に刻み込まれることになるだろうし、危機の影響は金融仲介機関内部におけるリスク管理の慣行やリスク評価モデルに対しても足跡をとどめることになるだろうからである。
金融市場において失敗が生じた理由に対する説明としてはヨリ醒めた見解もあり得る。このヨリ醒めた見解においては、(人間の能力の限界に起因する;訳者注)リスク評価における誤りよりは、むしろシステマティックなインセンティブの歪みが強調されることになる。インセンティブの歪みとして第1に挙げられるのは、ローンの譲渡と金融的な投資決定との分離を可能とする組成販売モデル(“originate and distribute” model)に内在するモラルハザード問題である。第2の(インセンティブの)歪みとして挙げられるのは、格付け会社が直面する利益相反の問題である―格付け会社の収入源の一つである格付け手数料は、格付けの対象となる会社によって支払われている(訳者注;格付け会社は、安定的な格付け手数料を手に入れるために、そこまで厳しい格付けを行わないよう動機付けられることになるかもしれない。というのも、あまりに厳しい格付け評価を行うと、格付けの依頼をする会社が減ってしまう(その結果として格付け手数料も減ってしまう)可能性があるからである。)―。 そして第3の歪みとして挙げられるのは、金融機関の経営者が直面していた報酬体系が近視眼的な行動と過剰なリスクテイキングの誘因となった可能性である―ボーナスの支払いが短期的なパフォーマンス指標と結び付けられていれば、経営者は大きなリスク、それも稀にしか生じない大きなリスクを引き受けるインセンティブを持つことになる―。金融市場における失敗がインセンティブの歪みに起因しているとすれば、(インセンティブの歪みが放置されたままでは;訳者挿入)市場が経験から学ぶ能力を信頼することはできないだろう。新たに厳格な規制を導入することを通じてインセンティブの歪みを正す必要があるということになろう―なお、新たに厳格な規制が導入されることになるとすれば、金融革新のぺースが大きく鈍化することになり、金融革新がもたらす有益な効果に浴することができなくなるというかたちでコストが生じることになるだろう―。
規制の失敗(Regulatory failure)
Mistakes in risk management cannot be only attributed to private operators. Supervisors have made major mistakes as well, allowing banks to accumulate off-balance-sheet liabilities and tolerating an excessive growth of leverage (i.e. the ratio of total assets to shareholders' equity) and indebtedness. This could be due to capture of supervisors by banks, arbitrage and international competition among supervising agencies, or implementation deficiencies. But more importantly, there has been a fundamental conceptual mistake –monitoring each financial institution solely on an individual basis, considering as the value at risk of the individual intermediary without taking systemic risk into any consideration. This is the same mistake that the individual intermediaries made.
A crisis of these proportions cannot have stemmed exclusively from mistakes in risk management. The reason is that high-risk investments were relatively small compared to the overall dimension of global financial markets (Calomiris 2007). Many observers expected that the American real estate bubble would burst. But few imagined that that would overwhelm financial markets all over the world. If this has happened, it must be that the shocks hit important amplifying mechanisms. This amplification can largely be attributed to financial regulation. In other words, even more than a market failure, the crisis was triggered by a failure of regulation (see the eleventh ICMB-Geneva Report, summarised by Wyplosz 2009).
Not so much that regulation was too lenient, or that deregulation had gone too far – rather, the very founding principles of regulation have amplified the effects of a shock that in reality was not that large. Subprime mortgages, the financial products whose insolvency has originated the current crisis, amount to about one trillion dollars. It is a large number in absolute terms, but small with respect to the total of about 80 trillion dollars of financial assets of the world banking system. As a comparison, consider that the losses originally estimated in 1990 during the savings and loans crisis were about 600-800 millions of dollars, less than the total of subprime mortgages, but the total amount of financial assets was much smaller then. Yet, that crisis was quickly overcome without major upheavals. Why has it been so different this time?
There are two aspects of regulation that have amplified the effects of the initial shock: (i) the procyclicality of leverage, induced by constraints on banks’ equity, and (ii) accounting principles that require assets to be evaluated according to their market value. In case of a loss on investments, which erodes the capital of financial intermediaries, capital adequacy constraints under the Basel accord require reduced leverage and thus force banks to sell assets to obtain liquidity. The problem is thus exacerbated: forced sales reduce the market price of assets, worsening the balance sheets of other investors and inducing further forced sales of assets, in a vicious circle. Exactly the opposite happens during a boom: capital gains on portfolio assets allow intermediaries to expand leverage, which means taking on more debt in order to acquire new assets, in such a way that the price of assets is pushed up and other intermediaries become indebted chasing increasingly high prices. In sum, banking regulation has created a mechanism that amplifies the effects of shocks and accentuates cyclic fluctuations in the indebtedness of financial intermediaries.
One of the main lessons to be drawn from this crisis is that we need to deeply reconsider financial regulation and ask ourselves what its ultimate objective is – correcting distorted incentives of agents, creating buffers that reduce procyclicality of leverage, or reducing risks, and, if so, which risks? A sound regulatory system should address two concerns:
- Correct distorted incentives of individual intermediaries or financial operators;
- Reduce negative externalities and systemic risk, bearing in mind that evaluating risk management practices within individual intermediaries is not sufficient.
Finally, inevitably, this will have to translate into rules that reduce the size of leverage in absolute terms and its procyclicality.
危機への政策対応における誤り(Mistakes in managing the crisis)
It is widely held that the current situation is mostly the result of economic policy mistakes (in regulation, in supervision and, according to some, monetary policy) made before the outbreak of the crisis. The corollary of this thesis is that it is sufficient to correct these mistakes in order to avoid the next crisis. But the truth is that many serious mistakes have been made during the management of the crisis and have significantly contributed to worsening the situation.
The unclear causes of the crisis have resulted in its management being improvised from step one without a clear path in mind. Bear Stearns was saved, Lehman Brothers failed, AIG was saved. Each decision was improvised, guided by neither pre-established criteria nor a sound and consistent strategy. The result is that, rather than boosting confidence, economic policy interventions have contributed to increasing confusion, panic, and fear.
Loss of confidence is always at the heart of any financial crisis. Expectations concerning the behaviour of authorities and other operators play a fundamental role in determining whether there will be contagion or whether the shock will be absorbed. But in order to influence expectations and restore confidence, policymakers must act according to procedures and criteria that are agreed upon and well understood, identifying the ultimate objectives and the policy tools to reach them. There has never been such clarity in this crisis, and that is an important lesson. To avoid repeating similar mistakes, it will be necessary to elaborate new and detailed procedures for managing complex phenomena such as the bankruptcy of large banks and more general policies aimed at preventing the worsening of systemic crises.
Given that large banks with systemic implications are typically multinational, these procedures will need to be coordinated at the international level. This is not easy, since, after all, only the state, and hence taxpayers, can cover systemic risk. Taxpayers must take on the burden of failing institutions’ debts, at least temporarily. But which state, which taxpayers, when the institution is a large multinational bank?
Although difficult, this problem is not new. Financial crises in developing countries, which occurred almost yearly in the 1990s, have now become less frequent and less devastating thanks to the procedures of crisis management elaborated within the International Monetary Fund. It is now time to learn from those experiences, adapting them to the specific problems of large multinational banks.
In my next column, I will outline where we might go from here.
<参考文献>
〇Brunnermeier, Markus K, Andrew Crockett, Charles A Goodhart, Avinash Persaud, and Hyun Song Shin (2009). The Fundamental Principles of Financial Regulation. Centre for Economic Policy Research and International Center for Monetary and Banking Studies.
〇Calomiris, Charles (2007). “Not (Yet) a ‘Minsky Moment’” VoxEU.org, 23 November.
〇Wyplosz, Charles (2009). “The ICMB-CEPR Geneva Report: ‘The Future of Financial Regulation’” VoxEU.org, 27 January.
Anisnamas-da2002 Christine Simmons https://www.brandywinevalleybyway.org/profile/The-Princess-The-Stray-Cat-And-Matters-Of-The-Heart-Download-Setup-For-Pc-WORK/profile
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